Pakistan “Teracotta Still”

In 1975 Dr Paolo Rovesti, on an archaeological expedition to the Indus Valley, came across an unusual terra-cotta apparatus, displayed along with terra-cotta perfume containers, in a Taxila museum. It appeared to be a primitive still, although the 3000BC dating would place it 4,000 years earlier than most sources date the invention of distillation.

Egypt

Throughout the ancient world Egypt was famous for its use of aromatic substances. During the 3^rd Dynasty (2650-2575 BC) the Egyptians developed the embalming and mummification processes in their search for immortality. Frankincense (Boswellia Carteria), Myrrh (Commiphora Myrrah), Cinnamon (Cinnamomum Zeylancium), Cedarwood (Cedrus Atlantica), Juniper Berry (Juniperus Communis) and Spikenard (Nardostachys Jatamansi) are all known to have been used at some point to preserve the bodies of the royalty in preparation for the afterlife. A medical papyrus dated around 1555BC describes remedies for a number of illnesses with many of the remedies being similar to those used in Modern Aromatherapy and Herbal Medicine.

China

There is evidence to suggest that the Chinese were using aromatics at around the same time as the Egyptians. Their practices involved burning incense to help create harmony and balance. The oldest surviving medical book in China dated circa 2700BC, by Shen Nung, Contains cures incorporating over 300 different aromatic herbs. Another significant work from about this time is the Yellow Emperors’ Classic of Internal Medicine which contains the basis for acupuncture as well as references to Massage.

 

India

The oldest form of medicine in India was termed Ayruvedic and in Ayruvedic texts dated around the 4^th Century BC reference is made to Cardamom (Elettaria Cardamomum). Tulsi Basil (Ocimum Sanctum) was also highly prized as it was the herb sacred to the god Krishna.  Ayruvedic Medicine is based upon aromatic massage and the use of Sandalwood (Santalum Album) was widespread.

Ancient Greece

The ancient Greeks learnt of aromatics from the Egyptians and went on to advance the knowledge. The first known physician who experimented with herbs and plants in his surgeries was Asclepius (circa 1200BC).

Hundreds of plants and medicines were researched for their beneficial effects by Hippocrates (“The Father of Medicine”, circa 400BC). Hippocrates believed that good health can be promoted with aromatic oils and massage and therefore surgeries should be avoided when possible – hence the fact that some would call him “The Holistic Father of Medicine”. The first discourse on scent was the study Concerning Odours by Theophrastus (circa 300BC) who catalogued all known aromatics and discussed ways in which they could be used. Another Greek physician, Megallus, formulated an aromatic remedy called megaleion. To make it, cinnamon (Cinnamomum Zeylancium), myrrh (Commiphora Mrrah) and charred frankincense (Boswellia Carteria) were soaked in a fatty base and it quickly gained fame for healing wounds and reducing inflammation.

Ancient Rome

The Romans further developed the Egyptian and Greek techniques for extraction of aromatic floral waters. Discorides wrote a book called De Materia Medica that described the properties of approximately 500 plants. He also studied distillation as described above. In circa 150AD the Greek Claudius Galen treated thousands of Gladiators with botanical remedies. He subsequently became the personal physician to the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius. The Romans were well known for their use of bathing, scented baths, and body treatments using aromatic oils.

Persia and the Middle East

In Persia in the 11^th Century a renowned physician of the age Ibn Sina (also known as Avicenna) invented a coiled distilling pipe which produced pure essential oils as opposed to the floral waters that had gone before. He achieved this process with Rose (Rosa Centifolia/Rosa Damascena). Avicenna also wrote a book – The Canon of Medicine – in which he refers to many essential oils including Cinnamon (Cinnamomum Zeylancium), Coriander (Coriandrum Sativum), Clove (Eugenia Caryophyllata), Aniseed (Pimpinella Anisum), Dill (Anethum Graveolens), Chamomile (Anthemis Nobilis/Matricaria Retutica), Juniper (Juniperus Communis) and Peppermint (Mentha Piperata). Also around this time the Arabs discovered how to make alcohol and this led to an expansion in the perfumery business as perfumes no longer had to have a heavy oily base.

 Europe

During the Renaissance (circa 1500AD) herbs and oils were brought to Europe from the Middle and Far East by explorers and merchants. Interest in these luxuries grew especially among the middle and upper classes. People carried scented handkerchiefs to overcome the effects of unsanitary streets and living conditions. Wigs were also scented with aromatic oils.

In France Lavender (Lavendula Augustifolia and Rosemary (Rosemarinus Officianalis) were used to fumigate hospitals.

The 12^th Century – Knights who had taken part in the Crusades brought back further knowledge of essential oils and how to distil them back to Britain.

An Abbess of Germany named Hildegard grew and distilled Lavender (Lavendula Augustifolia) for its medicinal properties.

The 13^th Century – The pharmaceutical Industry was born whic encouraged further distillation of essential oils.

The 14^th Century – This was the time of the Black Death and herbal preparations were used extensively to help ward of this terrible disease. It is believed that some perfumers escaped death due to their constant contact with the natural aromatics. The first European comprehensive work on infused oils was written titled ‘An Herbal’. It detailed using oils for arthritis, gout, muscular aches, wounds and sores and in the aid of both conception and birth.

The 15^th Century – An Alchemist, medical doctor and radical thinker, Paracelcus, conducted many studies and radically challenged the nature of alchemy, focusing on using plants as medicines. He is credited with coining the term ‘essence’. In addition at this time more plants were distilled to create essential oils including Frankincense (Boswellia Carteria), Juniper (Juniperus Communis), Sage (Salvia Officianalis) and Rosemary (Rosemarinus Officianalis).

The 16^th Century – Purchasing essential oils became easier with the rise of the apothecary and many more essential oils were introduced. There was also a great step forward for Aromatherapy at this time. A German physician, by the name of Hieronymus Braunschweig, wrote about essential oils including Rosemary (Rosemarinus Officianalis), Lavender (Lavendula Augustifolia), Clove (Eugenia caryophyllata), Cinnamon (Cinnamomum Zeylancium), Myrrh (Commiphora Myrrah) and Nutmeg (Myristica Fragrans).

The 17^th Century - The Great Plague occurred at this time and Londoners burnt bundles of Lavender (Lavendula Augustifolia), Cedarwood (Cedrus Atlantica) and Cypress (Cupressus Sempervirens) as their only defence against the disease.

The 17^th Century was known as the ‘Golden Age’ of English herbalists, especially Nicholas Culpepper, Hohn Parkinson and John Gerardes. Essential oils had a firm place in the herbalist’s repertoire. Culpepper says of Lavender (Lavendula Augustifolia):

 ‘It is of especial use for pains in the head and brain, following cold, apoplexy falling sickness the dropsy or sluggish malady, cramps, convulsions, palsies and faintings. It provokes women’s courses, and expels the dead child and afterbirth’

From 1650AD there was a divide between those that used herbal remedies and those that used chemical drugs. The Herbalists eventually fell from grace but both groups continued to use essential oils.

The 18^th Century – By this time many large country houses in Europe had their own ‘still room’ where aromatic oils and waters were distilled from plants grown on the estate. These were then used in fragrances, toiletries, medicines and even foods.

The 19^th Century – During this time essential oils were used less and less being replaced by chemical drugs. However in the flower growing district areas of France it was noted that the workers who processed the fragrant flowers and herbs had few respiratory diseases and this led to the first recorded laboratory test on the antibacterial properties of essential oils in 1887.

The 20^th Century – In 1928 the term Aromatherapy was coined by the French chemist René Maurice Gattefossé. One day while working in his laboratory he accidentally burnt himself. Immediately he plunged his hand into the nearest cool liquid which happened to be a pot of lavender (Lavendular Augustifolia) oil.

The burn he suffered healed quickly and left no scar. In 1937 he wrote a book Aromatherapie: Les Huiles Essentielles Hormones Vegetales known in England as Gattefossés Aromatherapy which is still in print and read today. At about the same time another Frenchman, Albert Couvreur, published a book on the use of essential oils in medicine. A follower of Gattefossé, Jean Valnet worked with essential oils in order to treat wounded soldiers and those with gangrene during the Second World War. Austrian biochemist Marguerite Maury further developed the idea and used essential oils as part of healing massage. She developed the idea of creating individual blends or ‘prescriptions’ and also recognised the importance of blending essential oils with a carrier oil. The work of these people established Aromatherapy as we know it today and helped to start a revival in the interest in Aromatherapy. In France Medical Doctors can study aromatherapy and approximately 1500 general practitioners now prescribe essential oils. Aromatherapy is now used widely by Holistic Therapists, some enlightened doctors and nurses and the general public. In 1977 Robert Tisserand wrote the very first aromatherapy book in English entitled, 'The Art of Aromatherapy'. This book became the inspiration and reference for virtually every future author on the subject for almost two decades. In 1985 the International Federation of Aromatherapists was set up to provide an independent representative body for the aromatherapy profession.